Jorge R. Ledesma, Jianing Ma, Avina Vongpradith, Emilie R. Maddison, Amanda Novotney, Molly H. Biehl, Kate E. Legrand, Jennifer M. Ross, Deepa Jahagirdar, Dana Bryazka, Rachel Feldman, Hassan Abolhassani, Akine Eshete Abosetugn, Eman Abu-Gharbieh, Oladimeji M. Adebayo, Qorinah Estiningtyas Sakilah Adnani, Saira Afzal, Bright Opoku Ahinkorah, Sajjad Ahmad Ahmad, Sepideh Ahmadi, Tarik Ahmed Rashid, Yusra Ahmed Salih, Addis Aklilu, Chisom Joyqueenet Akunna, Hanadi Al Hamad, Fares Alahdab, Yosef Alemayehu, Kefyalew Addis Alene, Beriwan Abdulqadir Ali, Liaqat Ali, Vahid Alipour, Hesam Alizade, Rajaa M. Al-Raddadi, Nelson Alvis-Guzman, Saeed Amini, Arianna Maever L. Amit, Jason A. Anderson, Sofa Androudi, Carl Abelardo T. Antonio, Catherine M. Antony, Razique Anwer, Jalal Arabloo, Asrat Arja, Mulusew A. Asemahagn, Sachin R. Atre, Gulrez Shah Azhar, B.B. Darshan, Zaheer-Ud-Din Babar, Atif Amin Baig, Maciej Banach, Hiba Jawdat Barqawi, Fabio Barra, Amadou Barrow, Sanjay Basu, Uzma Iqbal Belgaumi, Akshaya Srikanth Bhagavathula, Nikha Bhardwaj, Pankaj Bhardwaj, Natalia V. Bhattacharjee, Krittika Bhattacharyya, Ali Bijani, Boris Bikbov, Archith Boloor, Nikolay Ivanovich Briko, Danilo Buonsenso, Sharath Burugina Nagaraja, Zahid A. Butt, Austin Carter, Felix Carvalho, Jaykaran Charan, Souranshu Chatterjee, Soosanna Kumary Chattu, Vijay Kumar Chattu, Devasahayam J. Christopher, Dinh-Toi Chu, Mareli M. Claassens, Omid Dadras, Amare Belachew Dagnew, Xiaochen Dai, Lalit Dandona, Rakhi Dandona, Parnaz Daneshpajouhnejad, Aso Mohammad Darwesh, Deepak Dhamnetiya, Mostafa Dianatinasab, Daniel Diaz, Linh Phuong Doan, Sahar Eftekharzadeh, Muhammed Elhadi, Amir Emami, Shymaa Enany, Emerito Jose A. Faraon, Farshad Farzadfar, Eduarda Fernandes, Lorenzo Ferro Desideri, Irina Filip, Florian Fischer, Masoud Foroutan, Tahvi D. Frank, Alberto L. Garcia-Basteiro, Christian Garcia-Calavaro, Tushar Garg, Biniyam Sahiledengle Geberemariyam, Keyghobad Ghadiri, Ahmad Ghashghaee, Mahaveer Golechha, Amador Goodridge, Bhawna Gupta, Sapna Gupta, Veer Bala Gupta, Vivek Kumar Gupta, Mohammad Rifat Haider, Samer Hamidi, Asif Hanif, Shaful Haque, Harapan Harapan, Arief Hargono, Ahmed I. Hasaballah, Abdiwahab Hashi, Shoaib Hassan, Hadi Hassankhani, Khezar Hayat, Kamal Hezam, Ramesh Holla, Mehdi Hosseinzadeh, Mihaela Hostiuc, Mowafa Househ, Rabia Hussain, Segun Emmanuel Ibitoye, Irena M. Ilic, Milena D. Ilic, Seyed Sina Naghibi Irvani, Nahlah Elkudssiah Ismail, Ramaiah Itumalla, Jalil Jaafari, Kathryn H. Jacobsen, Vardhmaan Jain, Fatemeh Javanmardi, Sathish Kumar Jayapal, Shubha Jayaram, Ravi Prakash Jha, Jost B. Jonas, Nitin Joseph, Farahnaz Joukar, Zubair Kabir, Ashwin Kamath, Tanuj Kanchan, Himal Kandel, Patrick D.M.C. Katoto, Gbenga A. Kayode, Parkes J. Kendrick, Amene Abebe Kerbo, Himanshu Khajuria, Rovshan Khalilov, Khaled Khatab, Abdullah T. Khoja, Jagdish Khubchandani, Min Seo Kim, Yun Jin Kim, Adnan Kisa, Sezer Kisa, Soewarta Kosen, Parvaiz A. Koul, Sindhura Lakshmi Koulmane Laxminarayana, Ai Koyanagi, Kewal Krishan, Burcu Kucuk Bicer, Avinash Kumar, G. Anil Kumar, Narinder Kumar, Nithin Kumar, Alexander Kwarteng, Hassan Mehmood Lak, Dharmesh Kumar Lal, Iván Landires, Savita Lasrado, Shaun Wen Huey Lee, Wei-Chen Lee, Christine Lin, Xuefeng Liu, Platon D. Lopukhov, Rafael Lozano, Daiane Borges Machado, Shilpashree Madhava Kunjathur, Deepak Madi, Preetam Bhalchandra Mahajan, Azeem Majeed, Ahmad Azam Malik, Francisco Rogerlândio Martins-Melo, Saurabh Mehta, Ziad A. Memish, Walter Mendoza, Ritesh G. Menezes, Hayimro Edemealem Merie, Amanual Getnet Mersha, Mohamed Kamal Mesregah, Tomislav Mestrovic, Nour Mheidly Mheidly, Sanjeev Misra, Prasanna Mithra, Masoud Moghadaszadeh, Mokhtar Mohammadi, Abdollah Mohammadian-Hafshejani, Shafu Mohammed, Mariam Molokhia, Mohammad Ali Moni, Ahmed Al Montasir, Catrin E. Moore, Ahamarshan Jayaraman Nagarajan, Sanjeev Nair, Suma Nair, Atta Abbas Naqvi, Sreenivas Narasimha Swamy, Biswa Prakash Nayak, Javad Nazari, Sandhya Neupane Kandel, Trang Huyen Nguyen, Molly R. Nixon, Chukwudi A. Nnaji, Mpiko Ntsekhe, Virginia Nuñez-Samudio, Bogdan Oancea, Oluwakemi Ololade Odukoya, Andrew T. Olagunju, Eyal Oren, P.A. Mahesh, Ramakrishnan Parthasarathi, Fatemeh Pashazadeh Kan, Sanjay M. Pattanshetty, Rajan Paudel, Pintu Paul, Shrikant Pawar, Veincent Christian Filipino Pepito, Norberto Perico, Majid Pirestani, Roman V. Polibin, Maarten J. Postma, Akram Pourshams, Akila Prashant, Dimas Ria Angga Pribadi, Amir Radfar, Alireza Rafei, Fakher Rahim, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar, Mahfuzar Rahman, Mosiur Rahman, Amir Masoud Rahmani, Priyanga Ranasinghe, Chythra R. Rao, David Laith Rawaf, Salman Rawaf, Marissa B. Reitsma, Giuseppe Remuzzi, Andre M. N. Renzaho, Melese Abate Reta, Nima Rezaei, Omid Rezahosseini, Mohammad Sadegh Rezai, Aziz Rezapour, Gholamreza Roshandel, Denis O. Roshchin, Siamak Sabour, K.M. Saif-Ur-rahman, Nasir Salam, Hossein Samadi Kafl, Mehrnoosh Samaei, Abdallah M. Samy, Satish Saroshe, Benn Sartorius, Brijesh Sathian, Susan M. Sawyer, Subramanian Senthilkumaran, Allen Seylani, Omid Shafaat, Masood Ali Shaikh, Kiomars Sharaf, Ranjitha S. Shetty, Mika Shigematsu, Jae Il Shin, João Pedro Silva, Jitendra Kumar Singh, Smriti Sinha, Valentin Yurievich Skryabin, Anna Aleksandrovna Skryabina, Emma Elizabeth Spurlock, Chandrashekhar T. Sreeramareddy, Paschalis Steiropoulos, Mu'awiyyah Babale Sufyan, Takahiro Tabuchi, Eyayou Girma Tadesse, Zemenu Tamir, Elvis Enowbeyang Tarkang, Yohannes Tekalegn, Fisaha Haile Tesfay, Belay Tessema, Rekha Thapar, Imad I. Tleyjeh, Ruoyan Tobe-Gai, Bach Xuan Tran, Berhan Tsegaye, Gebiyaw Wudie Tsegaye, Anayat Ullah, Chukwuma David Umeokonkwo, Sahel Valadan Tahbaz, Bay Vo, Giang Thu Vu, Yasir Waheed, Magdalene K. Walters, Joanna L. Whisnant, Mesfn Agachew Woldekidan, Befkadu Legesse Wubishet, Seyed Hossein Yahyazadeh Jabbari, Taklo Simeneh Yazie Yazie, Yigizie Yeshaw, Siyan Yi, Vahit Yigit, Naohiro Yonemoto, Chuanhua Yu, Ismaeel Yunusa, Mikhail Sergeevich Zastrozhin, Anasthasia Zastrozhina, Zhi-Jiang Zhang, Alimuddin Zumla, Ali H. Mokdad, Joshua A. Salomon, Robert C. Reiner, Stephen S. Lim, Mohsen Naghavi, Theo Vos, Simon I. Hay, Christopher J. L. Murray, Hmwe Hmwe Kyu
Background: Tuberculosis is a major contributor to the global burden of disease, causing more than a million deaths annually. Given an emphasis on equity in access to diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis in global health targets, evaluations of differences in tuberculosis burden by sex are crucial. We aimed to assess the levels and trends of the global burden of tuberculosis, with an emphasis on investigating differences in sex by HIV status for 204 countries and territories from 1990 to 2019. Methods: We used a Bayesian hierarchical Cause of Death Ensemble model (CODEm) platform to analyse 21 505 site-years of vital registration data, 705 site-years of verbal autopsy data, 825 site-years of sample-based vital registration data, and 680 site-years of mortality surveillance data to estimate mortality due to tuberculosis among HIV-negative individuals. We used a population attributable fraction approach to estimate mortality related to HIV and tuberculosis coinfection. A compartmental meta-regression tool (DisMod-MR 2.1) was then used to synthesise all available data sources, including prevalence surveys, annual case notifications, population-based tuberculin surveys, and tuberculosis cause-specific mortality, to produce estimates of incidence, prevalence, and mortality that were internally consistent. We further estimated the fraction of tuberculosis mortality that is attributable to independent effects of risk factors, including smoking, alcohol use, and diabetes, for HIV-negative individuals. For individuals with HIV and tuberculosis coinfection, we assessed mortality attributable to HIV risk factors including unsafe sex, intimate partner violence (only estimated among females), and injection drug use. We present 95% uncertainty intervals for all estimates. Findings: Globally, in 2019, among HIV-negative individuals, there were 1·18 million (95% uncertainty interval 1·08–1·29) deaths due to tuberculosis and 8·50 million (7·45–9·73) incident cases of tuberculosis. Among HIV-positive individuals, there were 217 000 (153 000–279 000) deaths due to tuberculosis and 1·15 million (1·01–1·32) incident cases in 2019. More deaths and incident cases occurred in males than in females among HIV-negative individuals globally in 2019, with 342 000 (234 000–425 000) more deaths and 1·01 million (0·82–1·23) more incident cases in males than in females. Among HIV-positive individuals, 6250 (1820–11 400) more deaths and 81 100 (63 300–100 000) more incident cases occurred among females than among males in 2019. Age-standardised mortality rates among HIV-negative males were more than two times greater in 105 countries and age-standardised incidence rates were more than 1·5 times greater in 74 countries than among HIV-negative females in 2019. The fraction of global tuberculosis deaths among HIV-negative individuals attributable to alcohol use, smoking, and diabetes was 4·27 (3·69–5·02), 6·17 (5·48–7·02), and 1·17 (1·07–1·28) times higher, respectively, among males than among females in 2019. Among individuals with HIV and tuberculosis coinfection, the fraction of mortality attributable to injection drug use was 2·23 (2·03–2·44) times greater among males than females, whereas the fraction due to unsafe sex was 1·06 (1·05–1·08) times greater among females than males. Interpretation: As countries refine national tuberculosis programmes and strategies to end the tuberculosis epidemic, the excess burden experienced by males is important. Interventions are needed to actively communicate, especially to men, the importance of early diagnosis and treatment. These interventions should occur in parallel with efforts to minimise excess HIV burden among women in the highest HIV burden countries that are contributing to excess HIV and tuberculosis coinfection burden for females. Placing a focus on tuberculosis burden among HIV-negative males and HIV and tuberculosis coinfection among females might help to diminish the overall burden of tuberculosis. This strategy will be crucial in reaching both equity and burden targets outlined by global health milestones. Funding: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an Open Access article under the CC BY 4.0 license
Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Department of Health Metrics Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Division of Data, Analytics, and Delivery for Impact, World Health Organization (WHO), Genève, Switzerland; Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, Sweden; Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Non-communicable Diseases Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Digestive Diseases Research Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Metabolomics and Genomics Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Sina Trauma and Surgery Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Public Health, Debre Berhan University, Debre Brehan, Ethiopia; Department of Clinical Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Clinical Sciences Department, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; College of Medicine, University College Hospital, Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; Department of Midwifery, Karya Husada Institute of Health Sciences, Kediri, Indonesia; Department of Midwifery, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand; Department of Community Medicine, King Edward Memorial Hospital, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Public Health, Public Health Institute, Lahore, Pakistan; The Australian Centre for Public and Population Health Research (ACPPHR), University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Foundation University Medical College, Foundation University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan; School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Epidemiology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Kurdistan Hewler, Erbil, Iraq; Database Technology Department, Sulaimani Polytechnic University, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq; College of Informatics, Sulaimani Polytechnic University, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq; Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Arba Minch University, Arba Minch, Ethiopia; Department of Midwifery, Arba Minch University, Arba Minch, Ethiopia; Department of Biomedical Sciences, Arba Minch University, Arba Minch, Ethiopia; Department of Public Health, The Intercountry Centre for Oral Health (ICOH) for Africa, Jos, Nigeria; Department of Public Health, Federal Ministry of Health, Garki, Nigeria; Geriatric and Long Term Care Department, Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha, Qatar; Rumailah Hospital, Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha, Qatar; Mayo Evidence-based Practice Center, Mayo Clinic Foundation for Medical Education and Research, Rochester, MN, United States; Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia; Wesfarmers Centre of Vaccines and Infectious Diseases, Telethon Kids Institute, Perth, WA, Australia; Erbil Technical Health College, Erbil Polytechnic University, Erbil, Iraq; School of Pharmacy, Tishk International University, Erbil, Iraq; Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Medical Sciences (NUMS), Rawalpindi, Pakistan; Multidisciplinary Department, National University of Medical Sciences (NUMS), Rawalpindi, Pakistan; Health Management and Economics Research Center, Tehran, Iran; Department of Health Economics, Tehran, Iran; Student Research Committee, Tehran, Iran; Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Infectious and Tropical Disease Research Center, Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences, Bandar Abbas, Iran; Department of Community Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; Rabigh Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; Research Group in Hospital Management and Health Policies, Universidad de la Costa (University of the Coast), Barranquilla, Colombia; Research Group in Health Economics, University of Cartagena, Cartagena, Colombia; Department of Health Services Management, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran; Department of Pediatrics, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran; School of Medicine and Public Health, Ateneo De Manila University, Manila, Philippines; College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines; Department of Health Policy and Administration, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines; Department of Medicine, University of Thessaly, Volos, Greece; Department of Applied Social Sciences, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong; Department of Pathology, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Public Health, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; National Data Management Center for Health (NDMC), Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; School of Public Health, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Department of Nursing, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Dr DY Patil Medical College, Hospital and Research Centre, Dr DY Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Pune, India; Center for Clinical Global Health Education, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; Department of Health Policy and Management, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) (Central Bureau of Statistics), The RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, United States; Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Mangalore, India; Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, India; Department of Health Policy, Manipal, India; Department of Community Medicine, Manipal, India; Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India; Department of Pharmacy, University of Huddersfeld, Huddersfeld, United Kingdom; Unit of Biochemistry, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin (Sultan Zainal Abidin University), Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia; Department of Hypertension, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland; Polish Mothers' Memorial Hospital Research Institute, Lodz, Poland; Academic Unit of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy; University Eye Clinic, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy; Department of Public & Environmental Health, University of The Gambia, Brikama, Gambia; Epidemiology and Disease Control Unit, Ministry of Health, Kotu, Gambia; Center for Primary Care, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States; TH Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States; School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; Department of Primary Care and Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; WHO Collaborating Centre for Public Health Education and Training, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; Department of Oral Pathology and Microbiology, Krishna Institute of Medical Sciences "Deemed To Be University", Karad, India; Department of Social and Clinical Pharmacy, Charles University, Hradec Kralova, Czech Republic; Institute of Public Health, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates; Department of Anatomy, Government Medical College Pali, Pali, India; Department of Community Medicine and Family Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India; School of Public Health, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India; Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India; Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India; Department of Surgical Oncology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India; Department of Statistical and Computational Genomics, National Institute of Biomedical Genomics, Kalyani, India; Department of Statistics, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India; Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran; Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research, Ranica, Italy; Department of Internal Medicine, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Mangalore, India; Department of Community Medicine, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Mangalore, India; Department of Anaesthesiology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Mangalore, India; Department of Epidemiology and Evidence-Based Medicine, IM Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russian Federation; Department of Woman and Child Health and Public Health, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS (Agostino Gemelli University Polyclinic IRCCS), Roma, Italy; Global Health Research Institute, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore (Catholic University of Sacred Heart), Roma, Italy; Department of Community Medicine, Employee State Insurance Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences and Research, Bangalore, India; School of Public Health and Health Systems, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada; Al Shifa School of Public Health, Al Shifa Trust Eye Hospital, Rawalpindi, Pakistan; Research Unit on Applied Molecular Biosciences (UCIBIO), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Associated Laboratory for Green Chemistry (LAQV), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Department of Microbiology & Infection Control, Medanta Medicity, Gurugram, India; Department of Public Health, Texila American University, Georgetown, Guyana; Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Global Institute of Public Health (GIPH), Thiruvananthapuram, India; Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Christian Medical College and Hospital (CMC), Vellore, India; Center for Biomedicine and Community Health, VNU-International School, Hanoi, Viet Nam; Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia; Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, Stellenbosch University, Tygerberg, South Africa; School of Public Health, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand; Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan; Public Health Foundation of India, Gurugram, India; Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, India; Department of Pathology, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran; Department of Radiology and Interventional Neuroradiology, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran; Department of Information Technology, University of Human Development, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq; Department of Community Medicine, Dr. Baba Sahib Ambedkar Medical College and Hospital, Delhi, India; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran; Department of Epidemiology, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Bacteriology and Virology Department, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Burn and Wound Healing Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Center of Complexity Sciences, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnics, Autonomous University of Sinaloa, Culiacán Rosales, Mexico; Institute for Global Health Innovations, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Viet Nam; Faculty of Medicine, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Viet Nam; Division of Urology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Faculty of Medicine, University of Tripoli, Tripoli, Libya; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt; Psychiatry Department, Kaiser Permanente, Fontana, CA, United States; School of Health Sciences, AT Still University, Mesa, AZ, United States; Institute of Gerontological Health Services and Nursing Research, Ravensburg-Weingarten University of Applied Sciences, Weingarten, Germany; Department of Medical Parasitology, Abadan Faculty of Medical Sciences, Abadan, Iran; Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, United States; Department of Tuberculosis, Manhiça Health Research Center (CISM), Manhiça, Mozambique; Viral and Bacterial Infections Research Program, Barcelona Institute for Global Health, Barcelona, Spain; Programa Centro de Salud Pública, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, School of Public Health, University of Santiago Chile, Santiago, Chile; Department of Radiology, King Edward Memorial Hospital, Mumbai, India; Department of Public Health, Madda Walabu University, Bale Robe, Ethiopia; Infectious Disease Research Center, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran; Pediatric Department, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran; Research Center for Environmental Determinants of Health, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran; Indian Institute of Public Health, Gandhinagar, India; Tuberculosis Biomarker Research Unit, Instituto de Investigaciones Científicas y Servicios de Alta Tecnología, Institute for Scientific Research and High Technology Services, City of Knowledge, Panama; Department of Public Health, Torrens University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Toxicology Department, Shriram Institute for Industrial Research, Delhi, Delhi, India; School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia; Department of Clinical Medicine, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Department of Social and Public Health, Ohio University, Athens, OH, United States; School of Health and Environmental Studies, Hamdan Bin Mohammed Smart University, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; University Institute of Public Health, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan; Research & Scientific Studies Unit, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia; Medical Research Unit, Universitas Syiah Kuala (Syiah Kuala University), Banda Aceh, Indonesia; Department of Epidemiology, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia; Department of Zoology and Entomology, Al Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt; Department of Public Health, Jigjiga University, Jijiga, Ethiopia; Center for International Health (CIH), University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; Bergen Center for Ethics and Priority Setting (BCEPS), University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; School of Nursing and Midwifery, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Biotechnology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Molecular Medicine Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Drug Applied Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Tabriz, Iran; Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Pharmacy Administration and Clinical Pharmacy, Xian Jiaotong University, Xian, China; Department of Applied Microbiology, Taiz University, Taiz, Yemen; Department of Microbiology, Nankai University, Tianjin, China; Internal Medicine Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania; College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha, Qatar; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Science Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia; Department of Health Promotion and Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia; Department of Epidemiology, University of Kragujevac, Kragujevac, Serbia; Department of Clinical Pharmacy, MAHSA University, Bandar Saujana Putra, Malaysia; Department of Health Management, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran; Gastrointestinal and Liver Diseases Research Center, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran; Caspian Digestive Disease Research Center, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran; Department of Global and Community Health, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, United States; Department of Internal Medicine, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States; Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States; Centre of Studies and Research, Ministry of Health, Muscat, Oman; Department of Biochemistry, Government Medical College, Mysuru, India; Department of Community Medicine, Dr. Baba Saheb Ambedkar Medical College & Hospital, Delhi, India; Department of Community Medicine, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India; Department of Ophthalmology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany; Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Beijing, China; School of Public Health, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Save Sight Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Sydney Eye Hospital, South Eastern Sydney Local Health District, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Centre for Tropical Diseases and Global Health, Catholic University of Bukavu, Bukavu, Democratic Republic Congo; Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa; Department of Global Health, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa; International Research Center of Excellence, Institute of Human Virology Nigeria, Abuja, Nigeria; Julius Centre for Health Sciences and Primary Care, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands; School of Public Health, Wolaita Sodo University, Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia; Amity Institute of Forensic Sciences, Amity University, Noida, India; Department of Biophysics and Biochemistry, Baku State University, Baku, Azerbaijan; Russian Institute for Advanced Study, Moscow State Pedagogical University, Moscow, Russian Federation; Faculty of Health and Wellbeing, Shefeld Hallam University, Shefeld, United Kingdom; College of Arts and Sciences, Ohio University, Zanesville, OH, United States; Department of Public Health, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, United States; Department of Genomics and Digital Health, Samsung Advanced Institute for Health Sciences & Technology (SAIHST), Seoul, South Korea; Public Health Center, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Wando, South Korea; School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Xiamen University Malaysia, Sepang, Malaysia; School of Health Sciences, Kristiania University College, Oslo, Norway; Department of Global Community Health and Behavioral Sciences, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, United States; Department of Nursing and Health Promotion, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway; Jakarta, Indonesia; Department of Internal and Pulmonary Medicine, Sheri Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences, Srinagar, India; Kasturba Medical College, Udupi, India; Network Centre for Biomedical Research in Mental Health, San Juan de Dios Sanitary Park, Sant Boi de Llobregat, Spain; Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain; Department of Anthropology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India; Faculty of Medicine, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey; Department of Community Medicine, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Jamshedpur, India; Department of Orthopaedics, Medanta Hospital, Lucknow, India; Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Unit of Genetics and Public Health, Institute of Medical Sciences, Las Tablas, Panama; Unit of Microbiology and Public Health, Institute of Medical Sciences, Las Tablas, Panama; Department of Public Health, Herrera, Panama; Ministry of Health, Herrera, Panama; Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Father Muller Medical College, Mangalore, India; School of Pharmacy, Monash University, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia; School of Pharmacy, Taylor's University Lakeside Campus, Subang Jaya, Malaysia; The Office of Health Policy & Legislative Afairs, University of Texas, Galveston, TX, United States; Department of Quantitative Health Science, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States; Center for Integration of Data and Health Knowledge, Oswald Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Salvador, Brazil; Centre for Global Mental Health (CGMH), London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Department of Biochemistry, BGS Global Institute of Medical Sciences, Bengaluru, India; Department of Community Medicine, Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research, Karaikal, India; Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Ceará, Campus Caucaia, Caucaia, Brazil; Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States; College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Research & Innovation Center, Ministry of Health, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Peru Country Office, United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), Lima, Peru; Forensic Medicine Division, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia; Department of Pharmacy Practice, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia; Department of Statistics, Debre Markos University, Debre Markos, Ethiopia; School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia; Research Centre for Generational Health and Ageing, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia; School of Medicine, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia; Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia; Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States; Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Menoufa University, Shebin El-Kom, Egypt; Clinical Microbiology and Parasitology Unit, Dr Zora Profozic Polyclinic, Zagreb, Croatia; University Centre Varazdin, University North, Varazdin, Croatia; Department of Communication and Journalism, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Information Technology, Lebanese French University, Erbil, Iraq; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord, Iran; Health Systems and Policy Research Unit, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria; Department of Community Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria; Department of Health Care Management, Technical University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany; Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, United Kingdom; Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Pabna University of Science and Technology, Pabna, Bangladesh; Department of Medicine, TMSS Medical College, Bogura, Bangladesh; Department of Medicine, Sofa Ismail Memorial Medical Centre, Bogura, Bangladesh; Big Data Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; Nufeld Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; Research and Analytics Department, Initiative for Financing Health and Human Development, Chennai, India; Department of Research and Analytics, Bioinsilico Technologies, Chennai, India; Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Government Medical College Trivandrum, Trivandrum, India; Health Action by People, Trivandrum, India; Discipline of Social & Administrative Pharmacy, University of Science, Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia; Mysore Medical College and Research Institute, Government Medical College, Mysore, India; Bupa Clemton Park, Bupa, Sydney, NSW, Australia; South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa; School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; Division of Cardiology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; The Cardiac Clinic, Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town, South Africa; Administrative and Economic Sciences Department, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania; Department of Community Health and Primary Care, University of Lagos, Idi Araba, Nigeria; Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria; Graduate School of Public Health, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, United States; Department of Respiratory Medicine, Jagadguru Sri Shivarathreeswara Academy of Health Education and Research, Mysore, India; CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, Lucknow, India; Central Department of Public Health, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal; Centre for the Study of Regional Development, Jawahar Lal Nehru University, New Delhi, India; Department of Genetics, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States; Center for Research and Innovation, Ateneo De Manila University, Pasig City, Philippines; Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research, Bergamo, Italy; Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran; University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands; School of Economics and Business, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands; Department of Biochemistry, Jagadguru Sri Shivarathreeswara University, Mysuru, India; Health Sciences Department, Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta, Sukoharjo, Indonesia; College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, United States; Department of Immunology, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran; Molecular and Cell Biology Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran; Pediatric Infectious Diseases Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran; Thalassemia and Hemoglobinopathy Research Center, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran; Pure Earth, Dhaka, Bangladesh, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, Bangladesh; Department of Population Science and Human Resource Development, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, Bangladesh; Future Technology Research Center, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Yunlin, Taiwan; Department of Pharmacology, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka; NIHR-Biomedical Research Centre (NIHR-BRC), London, United Kingdom; University College London Hospitals, London, United Kingdom; Academic Public Health England, Public Health England, London, United Kingdom; School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Campbelltown, NSW, Australia; Translational Health Research Institute, Western Sydney University, Campbelltown, NSW, Australia; Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Woldia University, Woldia, Ethiopia; Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa; Network of Immunity in Infection, Malignancy and Autoimmunity (NIIMA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran; Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; Golestan Research Center of Gastroenterology and Hepatology (GRCGH), Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran; Department of Lifestyle Research and Public Health, NA Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health, Moscow, Russian Federation; Health Systems and Population Studies Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Department of Public Health and Health Systems, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan; Department of Microbiology, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, India; Emergency Department, Brown University, Providence, RI, United States; Department of Entomology, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt; Department of Community Medicine, Mahatma Gandhi Memorial Medical College, Indore, India; Faculty of Health & Social Sciences, Bournemouth University, Bournemouth, United Kingdom; Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia; Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Parkville, VIC, Australia; Emergency Department, Manian Medical Centre, Erode, India; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institute of Health, Rockville, MD, United States; Independent Consultant, Karachi, Pakistan; National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan; College of Medicine, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea; Department of Community Medicine & Public Health, Tribhuvan University, Janakpur, Nepal; Department No. 16, Moscow Research and Practical Centre on Addictions, Moscow, Russian Federation; Laboratory of Genetics and Genomics, Moscow Research and Practical Centre on Addictions, Moscow, Russian Federation; Therapeutic Department, Balashiha Central Hospital, Balashikha, Russian Federation; Division of Community Medicine, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Department of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupolis, Greece; Cancer Control Center, Osaka International Cancer Institute, Osaka, Japan; Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Department of Population and Behavioral Science, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana; HIV Health Promotion Division, HIV/AIDS Prevention Research Network, Cameroon, Kumba, Cameroon; School of Public Health, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia; School of Pharmacy, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia; Southgate Institute for Health and Society, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia; Department of Medical Specialties, Infectious Diseases Section, King Fahad Medical City, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Division of Infectious Diseases and Department of Epidemiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States; Department of Social Security Empirical Research, National Institute of Population and Social Security Research, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Health Economics, Hanoi Medical University, Hanoi, Viet Nam; School of Midwifery, Hawassa University, Hawassa, Ethiopia; Department of Community Medicine, Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Teaching Hospital Abakaliki, Abakaliki, Nigeria; Clinical Cancer Research Center, Milad General Hospital, Tehran, Iran; Department of Microbiology, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran; Faculty of Information Technology, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HUTECH), Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Center of Excellence in Behavioral Medicine, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Department of Pharmacy, Debre Tabor University, Debre Tabor, Ethiopia; Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore; KHANA Center for Population Health Research, Khana, Phnom Penh, Cambodia; Department of Health Management, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi (Süleyman Demirel University), Isparta, Turkey; Department of Neuropsychopharmacology, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Japan; Department of Public Health, Juntendo University, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China; School of Medicine, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China; Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Outcomes Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, United States; Addictology Department, Russian Medical Academy of Continuous Professional Education, Moscow, Russian Federation; Pediatrics Department, Russian Medical Academy of Continuous Professional Education, Moscow, Russian Federation; Department of Infection, University College London, London, United Kingdom; Center for Health Policy, Center for Primary Care and Outcomes Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
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